Part 1. Setting the Stage
Chapter 1. Introduction 3
Rationale and Approach 5
Synopsis of Previous Studies 6
Chapter 2. Pumas Past and Present 9
Puma Phylogeny 9
Puma Distribution and Status 15
Pumas in the Southwest 16
Taxonomy 16
Description 18
Statistic 21
Chapter 3. - Our Outdoor Laboratory 23
Physiography and Geology 26
Climate 27
Flora 29
Fauna 30
History of Human Use 33
History of Puma Exploitation 36
Chapter 4. Studying Wild Pumas 39
Life Afield 39
To Catch a Puma 42
Monitoring Desert Mule Deer and Desert Bighorn Sheep 51
Radiotelemetry 54
Investigating the Dead 58
Overview ofAnalytical and Statistical Methods 59
Part 2. Puma Life History Strategies and
Population Dynamics
Chapter 5. A Puma Population in the Desert 63
Research Hypotheses and Predictions 63
Termsfor Pumas 64
Counting Pumas 65
Chapter 6. Puma Population Structure 69
Sex Structure 69
Cubs 69 * Subadults 73 * Adults 73
Age Structure 75
The Population 75 * Adult Pumas 78
Summary 80
Statistics 81
Chapter 7. Reproduction 83
Natality 83
Timing of Births 88
Mating, Gestation, and Birth Intervals 91
Puberty and First Litters 93
Parental Investment 96
Reproductive Success 96
Females 98 * Males 103
Summary 110
Statistics 111
Chapter 8. Mortality and Survival 115
Human-Caused Mortality 115
Natural Mortality 117
Cubs 117 * Subadults 122 * Adults 127
Why Do Pumas Kill Other Pumas? 139
Summary 142
Statistics 143
Chapter 9. Independence of Puma Progeny, and Philopatry,
Emigration, and Immigration 145
Independence of Progeny 146
Philopatry and Dispersal 148
Emigration 153
Recruitment of Progeny and Immigrants 154
Summary 154
Chapter 10. Puma Population Density, Growth, and
Metapopulation Structure 157
Experimentally Removing Pumas 157
Density 160
Rates of Population Increase 169
Metapopulation Dynamics 175
Summary 179
Part 3. Puma Behavior and Social Organization
Chapter 11. How Should Desert Pumas Behave? 183
Two-Strategies Hypothesis 183
Self-Limiting Hypothesis 184
Chapter 12. Adult Home Range Characteristics 189
Delineating the Home Range 189
Seasonal andAnnual Home Range 191
Birth-Interval Home Range 192
Lietime Home Range 195
What Factors Influence Adult Home Range Size? 195
Home Range Size, Prey Abundance, and Puma Density 201
Does Prey Abundance Affect Home Range Size? 202 Does Puma
Density Affect Home Range Size? 204 * Does Home Range Size
Reflect an Attempt at Population Self-Limitation? 210
Adult Home Range Fidelity 211
Method 1-Fidelity Index 213 * Method 2-Distances between
Mean Locations 214 * Home Range Shifts in Pumas 216 �
Homing by Translocated Pumas 222 Benefits of Fidelity and the
Two-Strategies Hypothesis 223 Fidelity in Desert Pumas and the
Self-Limiting Hypothesis 225
Summary 225
Statistic 227
Chapter 13. Subadult Ranging Behavior 231
Philopatry in Females 232
Female Dispersal 233
Male Dispersal 236
Frustrated Dispersal 239
Why Do Pumas Disperse? 240
Transient Behavior in Pumas 244
Summary 245
Statistic 246
Chapter 14. Interactions between Pumas 247
Spatial Relationships 247
Home Range Overlap Indices 249 Nearest-Neighbor Analysis
254 -
Spatiotemporal Relationships 255
Direct Interactions 257
Associations between Independent Pumas 260 � Associations
between Family Mebers 267
Communication among Pumas 269
Vocalizations 269 * Chemical Communication 272
Summary 276
Statistics 277
Chapter 15. Adaptive Significance of Puma Social
Organization 281
The Social Structure of Desert Pumas 281
Female Structure 282 * Male Structure 283
The Self-Limiting Hypothesis 284
Land Tenure and Territoriality 285 * Do Desert Pumas Exhibit Land
Tenure or Territoriality? 286
The Two-Strategies Hypothesis 288
Female Strategy 288 * Male Strategy 290
Pumas and Other Big Cats-Similar Strategies? 294
Summary 297
Part 4. Puma-Prey Relationships
Chapter 16. Puma Diet 301
Patterns of Pumas and Prey 301
Puma Diet on the San Andres Mountains 302
Summary 308
Chapter 17. Pumas and Desert Mule Deer 311
Hypotheses, Predictions, and Terms 311
Characteristics of Dead Deer 312
Fates of Radio-Collared Deer 314
Mule Deer Population Dynamics 321
Puma Predation and Mule Deer Population Growth 322
Some Behavioral Interactions between Deer and Pumas 331
Did Puma Predation Limit the Deer Population? 332
Did Pumas Limit Their Own Density and Not Harm Their Food
Supply? 333
Cases of Pumas and Other Carnivores Limiting Prey
Populations 335
What Limits the Puma Population? 336
How Would a Puma Population Respond to a Prey Crash? 337
Summary 338
Statistics 339
Chapter 18. Pumas and Desert Bighorn Sheep 341
Hypothesis and Predictions 341
Pre-history, History, and Threats 342
Sheep Population Characteristics during Our Research 346
Fates of Radio-Collared Sheep 347
Survival Rates andAgent-Specific Mortality 350
Did Puma Predation Limit the Sheep Population? 354
Finale of the Sheep Population 354
Pumas and Other Sheep Populations 356
Summary 357
Statistic 357
Chapter 19. Synthesis: Pumas and Weather Modulate
Large-Mammal Population Dynamics on the San Andres
Mountains 359
Part 5. Pumas and People
Chapter 20. Conservation and Management of Wild
Pumas 365
Threats to Pumas 367
Habitat Loss 367 - Puma Overkill 371
Alleviating Threats 377
Habitat Conservation 378 * Preventing Unnecessary Overkill 383 �
Adaptive Management-Involving People 384
Summary 395
Statistic 395
Chapter 21. Epilogue 397
Appendix 1. Morphlogical Measurements of Pumas At Least 3.5 Months Old on
the San Andres Mountains, New Mexico, 1985-1995 399
Appendix 2. Reproductive Chronology ofMated Pairs of Pumas on the San
Andres Mountains, New Mexico, 1987-1994 413
Appendix 3. Methods and Estimates ofAnnual Home Range Size for Pumas on
the San Andres Mountains, New Mexico 415
Appendix 4. A Deterministic, Discrete Time Model That Simulated Mule Deer
Population Dynamics in the Treatment Area, San Andres Mountains, New
Mexico, 1987-1995. See Chapter 17for its application. 419
References 423
Index 451