TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0001
[Muhammad Ali;George Foreman;establishment;dissidents;Cold War;sports;boxing;seventies;Vietnam War;Black Nationalism]
The Rumble in the Jungle represented a turning point in American culture and brought togethercontentious forces at home and abroad in a global sporting spectacle. With the Vietnam War coming to an end and the civil rights movement in disarray, the bout highlighted the conflict between George Foreman’s patriotic defense of the liberal establishment and Cold War civil rights and Muhammad Ali’s rebellious Black Nationalism. During the height of global boxing matches, this fight struck a chord with black Africans and Middle East Muslims given Ali’s defiance of the boxing establishment, the American military, and the U.S. government which convicted him of draft evasion, stripped his title, and exiled him from boxing. By the 70s, Ali returned to the ring to battle Joe Frazier and George Foreman. Rather than Ali’s quest for personal redemption alone, the conflict between Dissidents and the American Establishment gave the match its larger significance. The book explores boxing during the 60s and 70s, the satellite technology that made global fights possible, the entry of new people, like Don King, into sports promotion, and the desire of foreign leaders in Third World countries to use boxing to solidify their regimes and raise their global status.
Chapter 1 - A Real Freak in Boxing: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the 1960s
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0002
[Muhammad Ali;Sonny Liston;Black Muslims;Vietnam War;masculinity;anti-war;draft;Pan-African;scapegoat;sixties]
This chapter analyzes Muhammad Ali as a Sixties hero who defied boxing orthodoxy, and transformed the black heavyweight from grateful icon to outspoken star who expressed himself freely. After winning the title against Sonny Liston in 1964, he admitted membership in the far from mainstream Black Muslims, and defied the U.S. government, the boxing establishment, and the American military by refusing the draft during the Vietnam War. He also traveled to the Middle East and black Africa to become a Pan-African hero and a global sports star. These moves catapulted Ali into the central conflicts of the 1960s and made him the most controversial champion since Jack Johnson. Exiled from boxing in 1967 for refusing the draft, sentenced to five years in prison and a $10,000 fine, Ali became a symbol of black defiance, an anti-war hero and global icon of black liberation. Vilified as a coward and a traitor, he challenged the Cold War orthodoxy that heavyweight champions should serve their country as models of patriotic masculinity. His stance made him a scapegoat for Americans upset about the rise of a youth counterculture, the defiance of black freedom activists, and a generation of anti-war youth.
Chapter 2 - 1968: Fists and Flags
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0003
[George Foreman;Muhammad Ali;Job Corps;1968 Olympics;gloved-fists;flag;Fighting Corpsman;Joe Frazier;Tommie Smith;John Carlos]
George Foreman, Muhammad Ali’s opponent in Zaire, was rescued from poverty and criminality by the Job Corps, and won a gold medal at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics against a Russian, making him a Cold War hero. His waving the American flag on the medal stand made him a counter to black athletic rebels like sprinters Tommie Smith and John Carlos who raised their black-gloved fists in protest against racism in American sport and society. As the “Fighting Corpsman,” he defended the American establishment, breadwinner liberalism, and American beneficence when he campaigned for Hubert Humphrey versus Richard Nixon during the 1968 presidential election. His flag gesture rendered him an outcast among black radicals, but it earned him broad white support as he went on to win heavyweight the title against Joe Frazier in 1973. In many ways he seemed a throwback to an earlier era of black athletes. Unlike Ali, Foreman expressed gratitude toward the U.S., was modest in demeanor, and like previous black boxing champions spoke rarely outside the ring and let his fists do the talking. Considered invincible, Foreman’s style, demeanor, and beliefs made him the perfect foil for Ali, as he sought to reclaim his title.
Chapter 3 - The Roads to Kinshasa
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0004
[Ali;Foreman;Don King;Henry Schwartz;Mobutu;satellites;Vietnam War;Joe Frazier;spectacle;global]
Ali’s return to boxing in 1970 was hailed as the resurrection of a defiant martyr, and his fights became highly-charged political spectacles. As more Americans opposed the Vietnam War, support for him grew. The Joe Frazier match in March 1971 was framed as a battle over Vietnam. Ali lost, Foreman beat Frazier for the title, and by 1974, Ali and Foreman would meet in a global spectacle in Africa, organized by international promoters, including Americans, Britons, Zaïreans, Swiss, and off-shore companies designed to screen financial manipulations from government scrutiny. Satellite communication moved images faster, jets speeded up people’s movement, and off-shore companies increased the flow of unregulated capital, making it possible for Third World leaders like Zaïre’s President Mobutu to stage global boxing events to solidify their rule and enhance their nation’s stature. Global satellite television made fights more lucrative, prizes rose, and governments stepped in to foot the bill. New people, like satellite television expert Hank Schwartz took over promotion, along with African American Don King who negotiated with black fighters. Originally set for September 25, 1974, the fight was rescheduled to October 30 when Foreman was cut in practice, placing the whole enterprise in doubt.
Chapter 4 - Say It Loud, I’m Black and I’m Proud: Zaire 74
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0005
[spectacle;global;festival;Zaïre 74;James Brown;Congo Rumba;Miriam Makeba;salsa;B. B. King;When We Were Kings]
Part of the global spectacle, Zaïre 74 was a three-day music festival designed to showcase African diaspora musical culture. Organized by Stewart Levine, Hugh Masekela, and Lloyd Price, the festival showcased the African roots of American and Caribbean music. American artists included James Brown, the Crusaders, B. B. King, Sister Sledge, the Pointer Sisters, Bill Withers, and Etta James. The Fania All Stars, led by Johnny Pacheco and featuring Celia Cruz highlighted Salsa as a Pan-Caribbean musical form popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s. African performers included South African Miriam Makeba, exiled for her anti-apartheid views. Zaire bands like Franco and T.P.O.K. Jazz, Tabu Ley Rochereau and Afrisa, played Congo Rumba. Except for the closing night the concert was a financial failure. A victim of Foreman’s cut, the fight’s rescheduling killed off foreign tourists for the festival, while high ticket prices discouraged local attendance, and scheduling problems prevented some artists from appearing. The stadium was filled only when President Mobutu gave away tickets for the third night. The documentary film of the concert did not appear until the 1990s as When We Were Kings, with its focus shifted from the music to the fight itself.
Chapter 5 - A Stitch in Time
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0006
[Ali;Foreman;sportswriters;cut;Zaïre 74;flag-waving;government;underdog;dissident;Mobutu]
Foreman’s cut imperiled Zaïre 74 and the fight, forcing a delay and raising questions whether the bout would occur. The match was rescheduled to October 30. Mobutu prohibited both fighters from departing. Stranded nearly five weeks, both camps grew bored. Ali ingratiated himself with the people, Foreman alienated Zaïreans by withdrawing from the public. The delay allowed international journalists to delineate the contrast between the two men. Most sportswriters gave Ali little chance. He was too old, too slow, and was challenging the boxing adage they never comeback. Younger and more powerful, Foreman appeared invincible. The press stressed that Foreman’s flag-waving past made him a defender of the established order while Ali remained the racial, religious and anti-war dissident representing black people worldwide. The African press made him the sentimental favorite. U.S. opinion appeared split: many hoped the unbeaten Foreman would finally silence the annoying Louisville lip and his constant criticism of white America. Conversely, many more American blacks and a large segment of whites feared for Ali’s safety,worrying he would not survive, but hoped he would vindicate himself and his fans against the unjust American government that had stripped him of his title and forced him into exile.
Chapter 6 - Rope-a-Dope
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0007
[Foreman;Ali;rope-a-dope;ropes;upset;underdog;invincibility;water;manhood;greatest]
On October 30, 1974 Foreman was a 3-1 favorite. Ali’s camp feared defeat, Foreman’s predicted victory by knockout. The Zaïre crowd was pro-Ali, chanting “Ali, Bomaye.” Given Foreman’s ferocious power, everyone assumed Ali’s only chance lay in staying away from the champion. Everyone expected Ali to dance, tire Foreman, and then knock him out in the later rounds. Instead, Ali surprised everyone with the rope-a-dope: after laying on the ropes for eight rounds, blocking Foreman haymakers, Ali knocked the champ out, surprising fans everywhere. However, the rope-a-dope was not planned, but was improvised because Foreman cut off the ring and gave Ali no place to go. In a major upset, the underdog won, defeating a behemoth opponent, the U.S. government, the ravages of time, boxing experts who predicted his defeat, and boxing history to become only the second heavyweight champion to reclaim his title. The defeat devastated Foreman. He blamed the loose ropes, a quick count, and doped water for his defeat. Others blamed Foreman for fighting a stupid fight. Ali vindicated himself. He and his supporters claimed him the greatest; Foreman lost his manhood and his identity, and his myth of invincibility.
Chapter 7 - Violent Coronation in Zaire
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0008
[Ali;Foreman;Dick Sadler;underdog;defeat;Vietnam War;hero;Africa;liberation;Black Power]
Ali’s win was heightened by his surprise victory, the rope-a-dope strategy, and the emotional rollercoaster for fans who feared for his death during the first several rounds, only to triumph rather than suffer apocalyptic defeat. Foreman’s loss forced him to confront defeat, which paralleled the American loss as the Vietnam War was concluding. Foreman charged that his trainer Dick Sadler stabbed him in the back by failing to inspect the ropes, giving him poisoned water, and not guiding him during the match. The loss sent Foreman into depression. Conversely, blacks and young whites saw the vindication of a black folk hero who symbolized black pride and liberation, and mirrored their struggles against white supremacy and the U.S. government. Abroad, black Africans and Muslims hailed Ali’s victory as an anticolonial win that reenacted their fight for independence. Ali’s underdog victory also reenacted the Vietnam War as the formidable Foreman unleashed powerful but ineffective blows against a weaker, smaller opponent who had the loyalty of the native population. Ali’s victory also linked domestic racism to white supremacy abroad, whether in Vietnam or Africa, where Ali was venerated for representing global Black Power and a victory for rebels everywhere.
Chapter 8 - On Top and Nowhere
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0009
[Ali;Foreman;sixties;Frazier;Marcos;Zaire;Islam;Leon Spinks;Jimmy Young;conversion]
Again champion, Ali found it harder to hold the title as he aged and lost the speed and agility that made him a Sixties’ hero. His last great fight was against Frazier in Manila in 1975. As in Zaïre, President Marcos used this global spectacle to publicize and strengthen his regime. Unlike Zaire, the bout had little political charge at home and was dominated by personal animosities and revelations of his marital infidelity and sexual voraciousness. The split in the Nation of Islam found Ali siding with the orthodox Muslims, transforming much of his separatist views. He fought to stay alive in his bouts and was at times saved by favorable judging until he lost the title to inexperienced Leon Spinks, won it again, and then retired. His second marriage collapsed, his finances dwindled, and he developed Parkinson’s. Foreman tried to recoup his identity, overcome defeat, and secure a rematch with Ali by demonstrating his personal toughness. On the verge of a rematch with Ali for the title, however, he suffered a 1977 loss against Jimmy Young, experienced a dramatic religious conversion, left boxing, and became a preacher in Houston. During the eighties both men were out of the limelight.
Chapter 9 - When We Were Kings
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226059570.003.0010
[Ali;Foreman;Parkinson’s;Olympic flame;Don King;Mobutu;CIA;Zaïre;market;tolerance]
The 1980s found both Ali and Foreman outside the public eye. Ali’s comeback in 1980 failed, he divorced again, his finances collapsed, and Parkinson’s silenced him. After a decade as an evangelist, Foreman returned to boxing in 1987. In 1994 he exorcised the ghosts of Zaïre by becoming the oldest heavyweight champion. Now Foreman was the garrulous one, making fun of his weight, pitching products as a race-neutral spokesman, and promoting the gospel of success. Ali returned to the limelight in the 90s, lighting the 1996 Olympic flame, but Parkinson’s made him a shadow of his former self. His Black Nationalism was replaced by religious tolerance and humanitarianism. Don King became the first major black boxing promoter, a sign that the 1960s made it possible for blacks to exert greater influence in American life. Yet, his business practices suggests that the inclusion of blacks would occur in the market system. President Mobutu initially benefited as the global spectacle enhanced his prestige as a strong leader. The failure of the Zaïre economy, his CIA ties, and his growing ruthlessness showed that new leaders might emerge on the world stage, but their fates too were tied to market capitalism.
